Adjuvant-Free COVID-19 Vaccine with Glycoprotein Antigen Oxidized by Periodate Rapidly Elicits Potent Immune Responses.

Modification of antigens to improve their immunogenicity represents a promising direction for the development of protein vaccine. Here, we designed facilely prepared adjuvant-free vaccines in which the N-glycan of SARS-CoV-2 receptor-binding domain (RBD) glycoprotein was oxidized by sodium periodate. This strategy only minimally modifies the glycans and does not interfere with the epitope peptides. The RBD glycoprotein oxidized by high concentrations of periodate (RBDHO) significantly enhanced antigen uptake mediated by scavenger receptors and promoted the activation of antigen-presenting cells. Without any external adjuvant, two doses of RBDHO elicited 324- and 27-fold increases in IgG antibody titers and neutralizing antibody titers, respectively, compared to the unmodified RBD antigen. Meanwhile, the RBDHO vaccine could cross-neutralize all of the SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. In addition, RBDHO effectively enhanced cellular immune responses. This study provides a new insight for the development of adjuvant-free protein vaccines.

pH-Sensitive and Biodegradable Mn3(PO4)2·3H2O Nanoparticles as an Adjuvant of Protein-Based Bivalent COVID-19 Vaccine to Induce Potent and Broad-Spectrum Immunity.

Developing a novel and potent adjuvant with great biocompatibility for immune response augmentation is of great significance to enhance vaccine efficacy. In this work, we prepared a long-term stable, pH-sensitive, and biodegradable Mn3(PO4)2·3H2O nanoparticle (nano-MnP) by simply mixing MnCl2/NaH2PO4/Na2HPO4 solution for the first time and employed it as an immune stimulant in the bivalent COVID-19 protein vaccine comprised of wild-type S1 (S1-WT) and Omicron S1 (S1-Omicron) proteins as antigens to elicit a broad-spectrum immunity. The biological experiments indicated that the nano-MnP could effectively activate antigen-presenting cells through the cGAS-STING pathway. Compared with the conventional Alum-adjuvanted group, the nano-MnP-adjuvanted bivalent vaccine elicited approximately 7- and 8-fold increases in IgG antibody titers and antigen-specific IFN-γ secreting T cells, respectively. Importantly, antisera of the nano-MnP-adjuvanted group could effectively cross-neutralize the SARS-CoV-2 and its five variants of concern (VOCs) including Alpha, Beta, Gamma, Delta, and Omicron, demonstrating that this bivalent vaccine based on S1-WT and S1-Omicron proteins is an effective vaccine design strategy to induce broad-spectrum immune responses. Collectively, this nano-MnP material may provide a novel and efficient adjuvant platform for various prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines and provide insights for the development of the next-generation manganese adjuvant.

Novel sialoglycan linkage for constructing adjuvant-protein conjugate as potent vaccine for COVID-19.

Self-adjuvanting protein vaccines have been proved to be highly immunogenic with efficient codelivery of adjuvant and antigen. Current protein vaccines with built-in adjuvants are all modified at the peptide backbone of antigen protein, which could not achieve minor epitope interference and adjuvant multivalency at the same time. Herein, we developed a new conjugate strategy to construct effective adjuvant-protein vaccine with adjuvant cluster effect and minimal epitope interference. The toll-like receptor 7 agonist (TLR7a) is covalently conjugated on the terminal sialoglycans of SARS-CoV-2-S1 protein, leading to intracellular release of the small-molecule stimulators with greatly reduced risks of systemic toxicity. The resulting TLR7a-S1 conjugate elicited strong activation of immune cells in vitro, and potent antibody and cellular responses with a significantly enhanced Th1-bias in vivo. TLR7a-S1-induced antibody also effectively cross-neutralized all variants of concern. This sialoglycoconjugation approach to construct protein conjugate vaccines will have more applications to combat SARS-CoV-2 and other diseases.

Self-Adjuvanting Protein Vaccine Conjugated with a Novel Synthetic TLR4 Agonist on Virus-Like Liposome Induces Potent Immunity against SARS-CoV-2.

Exploring potent adjuvants and new vaccine strategies is crucial for the development of protein vaccines. In this work, we synthesized a new TLR4 agonist, structurally simplified lipid A analogue GAP112, as a potent built-in adjuvant to improve the immunogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 spike RBD protein. The new TLR4 agonist GAP112 was site-selectively conjugated on the N-terminus of RBD to construct an adjuvant-protein conjugate vaccine in a liposomal formulation. It is the first time that a TLR4 agonist is site-specifically and quantitatively conjugated to a protein antigen. Compared with an unconjugated mixture of GAP112/RBD, a two-dose immunization of the GAP112-RBD conjugate vaccine strongly activated innate immune cells, elicited a 223-fold increase in RBD-specific antibodies, and markedly enhanced T-cell responses. Antibodies induced by GAP112-RBD also effectively cross-neutralized SARS-CoV-2 variants (Delta/B.1.617.2 and Omicron/B.1.1.529). This conjugate strategy provides an effective method to greatly enhance the immunogenicity of antigen in protein vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 and other diseases.

Colour Preference and Healing in Digital Roaming Landscape: A Case Study of Mental Subhealth Populations.

From the perspective of emotional preference, studies have been conducted about landscape healing for subhealth people in the National High-Tech Zone (the study area). Combined with a preliminary practice investigation, Unity 2019 was used to make a digital roaming landscape, and 91 subjects with a history of mental subhealth diseases were randomly invited to participate in the immersive experimentation of the Human-Machine Environment Synchronisation (ErgoLAB) platform. After the experiment, the subjects were invited to fill in a Likert scale as the control group. The interest preference, emotion fluctuation, and healing effect of landscape colour were verified. The results show that: (1) The variation trend of interest reflected the concentration of interest in landscape, and the order of degree of interest, ranging from high to low, went Green > Yellow > Blue > Red > Orange > Purple > Cyan. (2) The subjects' interest in landscape colour was correlated with the arousal of positive emotions. The correlation between interest in landscape colour and positive emotions, from high to low, went Blue > Green > Yellow, while the correlation between red, cyan, orange, and purple was not significant. (3) The mean skin conductance (SC) fluctuation variance of subjects was 5.594%, which confirmed that the healing effect of digital roaming landscape scenes was significant under the state of low arousal. According to the Likert scale data, subjects' scores of the healing effect of landscapes, from high to low, went as follows: Green > Yellow > Red > Blue > Cyan > Orange > Purple. The results provide a new method for demonstrating the logical relationship between the digital landscape interest experience-emotional awakening-healing effect and providing a theoretical method and construction scheme for landscape colour configuration in the implementation of landscape healing projects.

Adjuvant-Protein Conjugate Vaccine with Built-In TLR7 Agonist on S1 Induces Potent Immunity against SARS-CoV-2 and Variants of Concern.

With the global pandemic of the new coronavirus disease (COVID-19), a safe, effective, and affordable mass-produced vaccine remains the current focus of research. Herein, we designed an adjuvant-protein conjugate vaccine candidate, in which the TLR7 agonist (TLR7a) was conjugated to S1 subunit of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, and systematically compared the effect of different numbers of built-in TLR7a on the immune activity for the first time. As the number of built-in TLR7a increased, a bell-shaped reaction was observed in three TLR7a-S1 conjugates, with TLR7a(10)-S1 (with around 10 built-in adjuvant molecules on one S1 protein) eliciting a more potent immune response than TLR7a(2)-S1 and TLR7a(18)-S1. This adjuvant-protein conjugate strategy allows the built-in adjuvant to provide cluster effects and prevents systemic toxicity and facilitates the co-delivery of adjuvant and antigen. Vaccination of mice with TLR7a(10)-S1 triggered a potent humoral and cellular immunity and a balanced Th1/Th2 immune response. Meanwhile, the vaccine induces effective neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and all variants of concern (B.1.1.7/alpha, B.1.351/beta, P.1/gamma, B.1.617.2/delta, and B.1.1.529/omicron). It is expected that the adjuvant-protein conjugate strategy has great potential to construct a potent recombinant protein vaccine candidate against various types of diseases.

Self-Adjuvanting Lipoprotein Conjugate αGalCer-RBD Induces Potent Immunity against SARS-CoV-2 and its Variants of Concern.

Safe and effective vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its variants are the best approach to successfully combat the COVID-19 pandemic. The receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the viral spike protein is a major target to develop candidate vaccines. α-Galactosylceramide (αGalCer), a potent invariant natural killer T cell (iNKT) agonist, was site-specifically conjugated to the N-terminus of the RBD to form an adjuvant-protein conjugate, which was anchored on the liposome surface. This is the first time that an iNKT cell agonist was conjugated to the protein antigen. Compared to the unconjugated RBD/αGalCer mixture, the αGalCer-RBD conjugate induced significantly stronger humoral and cellular responses. The conjugate vaccine also showed effective cross-neutralization to all variants of concern (B.1.1.7/alpha, B.1.351/beta, P.1/gamma, B.1.617.2/delta, and B.1.1.529/omicron). These results suggest that the self-adjuvanting αGalCer-RBD has great potential to be an effective COVID-19 vaccine candidate, and this strategy might be useful for designing various subunit vaccines.

Save lives or save livelihoods? A cross-country analysis of COVID-19 pandemic and economic growth.

This paper studies whether containing COVID-19 pandemic by stringent strategies deteriorates or saves economic growth. Since there are country-specific factors that could affect both economic growth and deaths due to COVID-19, we first start with a cross-country analysis on identifying risk and protective factors on the COVID-19 deaths using large across-country variation. Using data on 100 countries from 3 January to 27 November 2020 and taking into account the possibility of underreporting, we find that for deaths per million population, GDP per capita, population density, and income inequality are the three most important risk factors; government effectiveness, temperature, and hospital beds are the three most important protective factors. Second, inspired by the stochastic frontier literature, we construct a measure of pandemic containment effectiveness (PCE) after controlling for country-specific factors and rank countries by their PCE scores for deaths. Finally, by linking the PCE score with GDP growth data in Quarters 2 and 3 of 2020, we find that PCE is positively associated with economic growth in major economies. Countries with average PCE scores, such as Malaysia, would gain more GDP growth by 3.47 percentage points if they could improve their PCE scores for deaths to South Korea's level in Q2 of 2020. Therefore, there is not a trade-off between lives and livelihood facing by governments. Instead, to save economy, it is important to contain the pandemic first. Our conclusion is also mainly valid for infections due to COVID-19.

Save Lives or Save Livelihoods? A Cross-country Analysis of COVID-19 Pandemic and Economic Growth☆

This paper studies whether containing COVID-19 pandemic by stringent strategies deteriorates or saves economic growth. Since there are country-specific factors that could affect both economic growth and deaths due to COVID-19, we first start with a cross-country analysis on identifying risk and protective factors on the COVID-19 deaths using large across-country variation. Using data on 100 countries from 3 January to 27 November 2020 and taking into account the possibility of underreporting, we find that for deaths per million population, GDP per capita, population density, and income inequality are the three most important risk factors;government effectiveness, temperature and hospital beds are the three most important protective factors. Second, inspired by the stochastic frontier literature, we construct a measure of pandemic containment effectiveness (PCE) after controlling for country-specific factors and rank countries by their PCE scores for deaths. Finally, by linking the PCE score with GDP growth data in Quarters 2 and 3 of 2020, we find that PCE is positively associated with economic growth in major economies. Countries with average PCE scores, such as Malaysia, would gain more GDP growth by 3.47 percentage points if they could improve their PCE scores for deaths to South Korea’s level in Q2 of 2020. Therefore, there is not a trade-off between lives and livelihood facing by governments. Instead, to save economy, it is important to contain the pandemic first. Our conclusion is also mainly valid for infections due to COVID-19.

A protein vaccine with Alum/c-GAMP/poly(I:C) rapidly boosts robust immunity against SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern.

Adjuvants are important components in vaccines to increase the immunogenicity of proteins and induce optimal immunity. In this study, we designed a novel ternary adjuvant system Alum + c-GAMP + poly(I:C) with STING agonist 3,3'-c-GAMP (c-GAMP) and TLR3 agonist poly(I:C) co-adsorbed on the conventional adjuvant aluminum gel (Alum), and further constructed an S1 protein vaccine. Two doses of vaccination with the ternary adjuvant vaccine were sufficient to induce a balanced Th1/Th2 immune response and robust humoral and cellular immunity. Additionally, the ternary adjuvant group had effective neutralizing activity against live virus SARS-CoV-2 and pseudovirus of all variants of concern (alpha, beta, gamma, delta and omicron). These results indicate that the ternary adjuvants have a significant synergistic effect and can rapidly trigger potent immune responses; the combination of the ternary adjuvant system with S1 protein is a promising COVID-19 vaccine candidate.

MPLA-Adjuvanted Liposomes Encapsulating S-Trimer or RBD or S1, but Not S-ECD, Elicit Robust Neutralization Against SARS-CoV-2 and Variants of Concern.

Safe and effective vaccines are the best method to defeat worldwide SARS-CoV-2 and its circulating variants. The SARS-CoV-2 S protein and its subunits are the most attractive targets for the development of protein-based vaccines. In this study, we evaluated three lipophilic adjuvants, monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA), Toll-like receptor (TLR) 1/2 ligand Pam3CSK4, and α-galactosylceramide (α-GalCer), in liposomal and nonliposomal vaccines. The immunological results showed that the MPLA-adjuvanted liposomal vaccine induced the strongest humoral and cellular immunity. Therefore, we further performed a systematic comparison of S-trimer, S-ECD, S1, and RBD as antigens in MPLA-adjuvanted liposomes and found that, although these four vaccines all induced robust specific antibody responses, only S-trimer, S1, and RBD liposomes, but not S-ECD, elicited potent neutralizing antibody responses. Moreover, RBD, S-trimer, and S1 liposomes effectively neutralized variants (B.1.1.7/alpha, B.1.351/beta, P.1/gamma, B.1.617.2/delta, and B.1.1.529/omicron). These results provide important information for the subunit vaccine design against SARS-CoV-2 and its variants.

RBD conjugate vaccine with a built-in TLR1/2 agonist is highly immunogenic against SARS-CoV-2 and variants of concern.

The coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is causing serious impacts in the world, and safe and effective vaccines and medicines are the best methods to combat the disease. The receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein plays a key role in interacting with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, and is regarded as an important target of vaccines. Herein, we constructed the adjuvant-protein conjugate Pam3CSK4-RBD as a vaccine candidate, in which the N-terminal of the RBD was site-selectively oxidized by transamination and conjugated with the TLR1/2 agonist Pam3CSK4. This demonstrated that the conjugation of Pam3CSK4 significantly enhanced the anti-RBD antibody response and cellular response. In addition, sera from the Pam3CSK4-RBD immunized group efficiently inhibited the binding of the RBD to ACE2 and protected cells from SARS-CoV-2 and four variants of concern (alpha, beta, gamma and delta), indicating that this adjuvant strategy could be one of the effective means for protein vaccine development.